| The American Revolution was a civil war | | | | die-hards, such as Samuel Johnson, demanded |
| between Loyalists to the British crown (aka | | | | blood ("I am willing to love all Mankind, |
| Tories, about one fifth of the population), | | | | except an American"). |
| supported by British expeditionary forces, | | | | |
| and Patriots (or Whigs) in the 13 colonies | | | | The denizens of the colonies tried, till the |
| that constituted British North America. | | | | last moment, to avert a constitutional (and, |
| | | | consequently, military) crisis. They |
| About 20-25% of the populace in the colonies | | | | suggested a model of two semi-autonomous |
| - c. 600,000 - were blacks. About one third | | | | nations (the United Kingdom and the |
| of the white denizens were non-British. Local | | | | colonies), united by the figurehead of the |
| patriotism ran high. All adult, white, | | | | King. But it was too little and way too late. |
| property-owning, men (about two thirds of the | | | | Violent clashes between the citizenry and |
| male numbers) were eligible to vote in | | | | British units started as early as October |
| elections to the lower house of the | | | | 1765 with the First Nonimportation Movement, |
| legislative assembly of the colony they | | | | directed against the Stamp Act. They |
| resided in. Each colony also had its | | | | continued with the Boston Massacre (five |
| governor. | | | | dead) in 1770; the attack on the British |
| | | | customs ship, the Gaspée, in Rhode Island, |
| Some colonies (e.g., Rhode Island and | | | | in 1772; and the Boston Tea Party in 1773. |
| Connecticut) were, in effect, incorporated | | | | |
| under royal charter as semi-commercial | | | | In April 1775, General Gage, governor and |
| ventures. Others belonged to the descendants | | | | military commander of Massachusetts, suffered |
| of their founders (proprietary colonies such | | | | a humiliating defeat in a skirmish in Concord |
| as Maryland, Pennsylvania, and Delaware). | | | | and Lexington. The Patriots were alerted to |
| Georgia, North and South Carolina, Virginia, | | | | his movements by Paul Revere who rode all |
| New Jersey, New York, Massachusetts, and New | | | | night to inform them that the "regulars (not |
| Hampshire were royal provinces, under direct | | | | the British, as the legend has it) are |
| British rule. | | | | coming." He was one of many such scouts. |
| | | | |
| Some of the colonists - for instance, the New | | | | The Loyalists fielded 50-55,000 armed men and |
| Englanders - were among the wealthiest and | | | | the Patriots countered by organizing |
| best educated people in the world, better off | | | | "militias" - irregular units of ill-trained |
| than the British themselves. But, per capita, | | | | and undisciplined volunteers. The Continental |
| they paid only 3% of the taxes levied on a | | | | Army was established only in June 1775, under |
| typical Briton. The colonies supplied the | | | | the command of George Washington, a veteran |
| West Indies with most of their foodstuffs and | | | | of the French and Indian War. At their peak, |
| consumed British finished products - but they | | | | the rebels mastered less than 100,000 men in |
| were not economically crucial to the British | | | | arms - only 25-30,000 of which were on active |
| Empire. | | | | duty at any given time. |
| | | | |
| In the years leading to the War of | | | | The Continental Army was, in the words of |
| Independence (1765-1776), the British | | | | General Philip Schuyler of New York "weak in |
| actually repealed all the taxes on products | | | | numbers, dispirited, naked, destitute of |
| imported into the colonies - with the single | | | | provisions, without camp equipage, with |
| exception of tea (and even this tax was | | | | little ammunition, and not a single piece of |
| drastically reduced). The colonists' slogan | | | | cannon." Late pay caused frequent mutinies |
| "no taxation without representation" was, | | | | and desertions. In 1783, Washington had to |
| therefore, more about local representation | | | | personally intervene to prevent a military |
| than about foreign taxation. And even this | | | | coup. Only repeated promises of cash bonuses |
| bit ringed hollow. The Encyclopedia | | | | and land grants kept this mob of youngsters, |
| Britannica: "The assemblies had the right to | | | | foreigners, and indentured servants |
| tax; to appropriate money for public works | | | | intermittently cohesive. |
| and public officials, and to regulate | | | | |
| internal trade, religion, and social | | | | Still, they outnumbered the British and the |
| behavior". The role of British government was | | | | "Hessians" - the 30,000 German mercenaries |
| confined to foreign affairs and trade. | | | | who participated in the 8 years of fighting. |
| | | | In all of North America, the British had |
| But both parties to the conflict breached | | | | 60,000 soldiers as late as 1779. They had to |
| this modus vivendi. During the Seven Years | | | | face a growing presence of hostile French, |
| (French and Indian) War (1754-1763), the | | | | Spanish, and Dutch armies, supplies, and |
| colonies refused to relinquish control over | | | | navies. The Native-Americans (Indians) |
| their militias to the British command and | | | | supported mostly the British, especially west |
| smuggled French goods into British North | | | | of the Appalachians. This provoked numerous |
| America (France being Britain's enemy). The | | | | massacres by the Patriots. |
| British, on the other hand, began interfering | | | | |
| in the colonies' internal affairs, notably | | | | The War spread to other parts of the world: |
| (but not only) by imposing taxes and customs | | | | the Gulf Coast, the Caribbean, India, the |
| duties in order to ameliorate Britain's | | | | Netherlands, the Mediterranean. The US Navy |
| growing national debt and by rendering tax | | | | even invaded the British port of Whitehaven |
| officials financially independent of the | | | | in 1778. |
| local colonial assemblies. | | | | |
| | | | The conflict affected the civilian population |
| Add to this a severe recession in the | | | | as well with both sides committing war crimes |
| colonies brought on by unbridled spending | | | | and atrocities aplenty. With many men gone, |
| financed with unsustainable personal | | | | women took over traditionally male roles and |
| indebtedness and, not surprisingly, acts of | | | | vocations, such as farming. Hyperinflation - |
| resistance to British taxation - such as the | | | | brought on by $500 million in newly minted |
| Boston Tea Party - were organized mainly by | | | | and printed money - led to mob scenes as |
| smugglers, artisans, and shopkeepers. Secret | | | | storekeepers were attacked and warehouses |
| groupings, such as the Sons of Liberty | | | | looted. |
| resorted to violence and intimidation to | | | | |
| achieve their (mostly economic but disguised | | | | The blacks largely sided with the British - |
| as "patriotic") goals. Even women got | | | | but many joined the Patriots and, thus, won |
| involved in a "buy American" campaign of | | | | their freedom after the war. Virginia |
| boycotting British goods. | | | | planters alone manumitted 10,000 slaves. By |
| | | | 1800, slavery was abolished in all the states |
| Many British merchants, bankers, politicians, | | | | north of Delaware. |
| intellectuals, and journalists supported the | | | | |
| colonies against the crown - each group for | | | | All told, less than 7000 Patriots died in |
| its own reasons. The merchants and bankers, | | | | battle (and 8500 wounded). About 1200 Germans |
| for instance, were terrified of a mooted | | | | perished, too. No one knows how many British |
| unilateral debt moratorium to be declared by | | | | troops, Indians, and other combatants paid |
| the colonies if and when militarily attacked. | | | | with their lives in this protracted conflict. |
| Others found it distasteful to kill and maim | | | | About 100,000 Loyalists emigrated to Canada |
| white British subjects (as the insurgents | | | | and thousands others (mainly of African |
| were). Yet others resisted imperialism, the | | | | ancestry) went to Sierra Leone and the |
| monarchy, taxes, or all three. Even within | | | | Bahamas. They were all fully compensated for |
| the British Army there was strong dissent and | | | | the property they left behind in what came to |
| the campaign against the rebellious colonies | | | | be known as the United States of America |
| was carried out half-heartedly and | | | | (USA). |
| lackadaisically. On the other hand, British | | | | |